The Complete Educational Guide to Egypt
Population: 102.3 million (as of 2020)
Capital City: Cairo
Land Area: 393,700 mi² (or a little less than 1.5 times the size of Texas)
Geography
Egypt is one of the northernmost countries in Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea on its north side. Libya borders it to the west, and Sudan borders it to the south. On the East, it borders Israel and the Red Sea.
Major Cities
| City Name | Population | Last Census |
|---|---|---|
| Cairo (capital city) | 9.54 million | 2017 |
| Luxor | 1.33 million | 2020 |
| Aswan | 1.57 million | 2020 |
| Alexandria | 5.2 million | 2018 |
Climate
In general, Egypt is a desert country. Almost the entire country sits in the easternmost parts of the Sahara desert, and sand is a very common sight. On the whole, Egypt can average almost 8 full inches of rain each year, but almost the entirety of that rainfall occurs in coastal areas along the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Away from the coast, rainfall is much rarer, and most of the country averages less than half an inch each year.
As with other desert countries, this means low humidity. The summer sun shines hot, but winter nights can get surprisingly cold, as well, and it can occasionally even snow!
In general, summer temperatures range from the mid-70s to mid-80s, while winters range from the high-40s to the high-50s.
Landscape
Unsurprisingly for a desert country, there are relatively few kinds of environments to explore in Egypt. Most of the country is made up of different deserts.
However, within those deserts, there is a surprising amount of variation, ranging from the black basalt sands of the Black Desert to the white chalk formations of the white desert. Some areas are filled with blowing sand and towers of sandstone, while others are flat stretches of loose sand blowing over limestone plains.
And cutting through the middle of the country, from the South to the North, runs the Nile.
Water is life in the desert, and the Nile River is the main source of fresh water in Egypt. As such, the river supports much of the population of Egypt, and farmlands are a common sight along its banks.
Fun Fact: The Nile is considered the longest river in the world, with a total length of 4,132 miles. However, if the Amazon River is measured from source to its farthest possible outlet, it comes out to 4,195 miles in length, making it the longest river. It’s a matter of some debate.
From the United States Geological Survey (USGS)
Apart from the Nile, water can be found in several different oases scattered across the country. The largest of these is the Faiyum Oasis, located roughly 70 miles from Cairo. There are several different lakes within the border of the oasis, and the country’s only waterfall.
Egypt is also home to three separate mountain ranges. The Sinai range is the easternmost range, located in the Sinai Peninsula (of Biblical fame), and is also home to Egypt’s tallest peak, Mount Catherine.
A second range, called the Red Sea Hills range, runs along the coast of the Red Sea. The third major mountain range is the Eastern Desert range and is located east of the Nile, in the Sahara Desert.
Flora and Fauna
When compared to areas with rainforests, it can seem like desert countries don’t have a lot to offer as far plants and animals go. However, even here in the Sahara, there is tons of amazing biodiversity, as well as unique plants and animals that are rare or even unknown in other parts of the world.
Animals
Desert animals are some of the most interesting in the world, owing in large part to the unique adaptations allowing them to live in such extreme locations. As a desert country, Egypt has its fair share of desert animals. Some of them are well-known across the globe, like the camel. Others are much less commonly known. Here are some of the most interesting.
Steppe Eagle
The Steppe Eagle is the national animal of Egypt and is featured prominently on the Egyptian flag. It is one of only a few migratory eagles in the world, and will often build its nest on the ground, instead of higher up.
It lives mostly in steppes across Eurasia, but can often be seen in areas of Egypt bordering the Red Sea.
Domestic Cat
While it is no longer thought that the house cat was first domesticated in Egypt, some scientists believe that Egyptians did domesticate them a second time. Either way, the house cat’s worldwide popularity owes a lot to Egypt’s love of the cat!
Today, it’s nearly impossible to visit Egypt without seeing some of our favorite feline friends.
Camels
Camels are possibly the most famous of desert animals and for good reason. They are extremely well-suited to sandy environments. With feet that splay over the sand to give them firm footing and the ability to go long periods without drinking water, there are few mammals that can survive the brutal Sahara as well as camels.
While most camels you see in Egypt today are domesticated, visitors to the Wadi al-Gemal National Park may find herds of wild camels living in the desert as they have for centuries.
Fennec Fox
Another impressive desert mammal, the fennec fox gets around the lack of water in the desert by simply never taking a drink! Instead, this tiny desert hunter gets all the water it needs from its prey, which consists of small rodents, lizards, and birds.
The fennec fox can be found throughout northern Africa but is found mostly in the western deserts in Egypt. If you’re hoping to see one, your best bet is to take a camping trip in the black and white deserts, where they may show up hoping for a bite of your food.
Nile Crocodile
At one point, the Nile Crocodile could be found anywhere in the Nile River, ready to attack any unwary animal that came too close to the water’s edge. Today, its range is much smaller, and you are unlikely to discover a wild crocodile unless you go looking for them.
However, they are still strikingly impressive animals and the largest species of freshwater crocodile in the world!
Today, they are most common in the Lake Nasser area south of Aswan.
Nile Monitor
The Nile Monitor lizard is the longest lizard in Africa, and one of the biggest lizards in the world. With a paddle-like tail, strong claws, and sharp teeth, it is well-suited to its environment, both when in the water and when on land.
As the name suggests, it can commonly be found along the Nile, but more recently it has expanded its reach to Florida, USA! It is an invasive species in the Everglades swamps thanks to people releasing their pets into the wild. But if you spot one here in Egypt, know that this lovely lizard is feeling right at home!
Sacred Scarab Beetle
Scarab beetles are among some of the most common insects in the world, with around 10% of all beetles belonging to the scarab family. The Egyptian Sacred Scarab is a species of dung beetle, and is still alive today! Ancient Egyptians likened the beetle’s rolling of a round ball of dung to the movement of the sun across the sky, turning the scarab into a creature of worship.
Despite their portrayal in popular movies, scarabs are not dangerous in any way, and if you happen upon one in the wild, feel free to watch it do its thing.
Today, the most common scarabs in Egypt are the small stone beads given out by vendors at market. Many shopkeepers will give them as gifts for coming into their shop, and if you spend much time window shopping, you may come away with a pocketful of these colorful bugs.
Flamingos
These fabulous pink birds are a common sight along the shores of Lake Qarun in the Fayoum Oasis. You may not think of them as such, but flamingos are some of the most extreme birds in the world, and the salty waters of the lake make them feel right at home.
The oasis is home to tons of other bird species as well, making the Fayoum area a birdwatching hotspot, but these birds are definitely some of my favorite.
And many more!
Plants
When you think of desert plants, the first one to come to mind is probably a cactus. But interestingly enough, there are no cactus plants native to Egypt! Instead, the country is home to a wealth of other plant life, including plenty of river plants and beautiful trees.
Papyrus
One of Egypt’s most famous plants, the papyrus reed is the plant that gave paper its name. That’s because this common river plant was used to create the earliest form of paper ever, giving ancient Egyptians an easily accessible material for writing.
While paper is a common substance today, it was a huge technological advancement for Egypt and a key component to their success in managing such a large kingdom!
Papyrus was used as a symbol to represent Lower Egypt (in the north), and can still be seen growing along the banks of the Nile today.
Lotus
The lotus flower grows in the still waters of the Nile River Delta and is the national flower of Egypt. Egyptians have used its strong scent as a perfume for centuries, and its image can be seen at the tops of many columns throughout Egyptian ruins. In the same way that papyrus represented Lower Egypt, the lotus was a symbol of Upper Egypt (in the south).
The white lotus blossom is often the lotus flower most strongly associated with ancient Egypt and was considered a symbol of rebirth. The white lotus flower, when it blooms, rises above the surface of the water. But after a few days, the flower closes again and dips below the water.
This cycle of repeated blooming and closing is why the lotus became associated with rebirth.
Dates
Dates are the fruit of the date palm and are one of the most commonly seen native plants in Egypt. The date palm gives a bountiful harvest of date fruits each fall, and many are dried and kept as a sweet treat to eat throughout the year.
The fronds of the date palm also have a woody center that is used in making furniture, and many of the chairs and tables that you find in Egypt are made using them. Because they can be harvested without cutting down the date palm, they are an excellent source of building material in an area with so few trees.
Olives
Although olive trees are not technically native to Egypt, they have been cultivated there for centuries. The earliest known references to them occurred during the reign of Ramses III (1197-1165 BCE), and olive oil was commonly used in Pharoahs’ lamps. Olive trees were an important resource in ancient Egypt, and many wooden artifacts were made from olive wood.
Today, olives are still extremely popular, and groves of olive trees can be found in many parts of Egypt.
Languages
Major Languages
The official language of Egypt is Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), which is a version of Arabic spoken across a number of different Arabic-speaking countries. It’s the version of Arabic most often used in media, such as movies or the news, but it is rarely used by most people in Egypt.
Instead, you are much more likely to hear what is called Egyptian Arabic, or Cairene.
For Arabic-speaking countries, that’s not rare. While MSA is great for communicating across country and cultural boundaries, many countries have their own versions of Arabic that they use day-to-day.
Unfortunately, that means that if you learn Arabic using an app like Duolingo or something like Rosetta Stone, you still might not understand everything that’s happening around you. However, you’ll most likely be able to make yourself understood, so it can still be worth it!
Historic Languages
Ancient Egyptian
Ancient Egyptian is a dead language, and cannot be heard anywhere in Egypt today. However, it can still be seen as it is the language of hieroglyphics!
Hieroglyphics is the picture-based alphabet used by the ancient Egyptians to write their stories on the walls of their monuments. If you see painted pictures in long rows on an Egyptian monument, you are looking at the written history of that place.
But Egyptians had another alphabet as well. Hieratic was another form of writing used with the ancient Egyptian language. Where hieroglyphs are made from pictures, hieratic looks much more like a modern alphabet, with wavy lines making up the letters. This is because thinner lines are much better for writing on paper.
We have far more examples of hieroglyphics than we do of hieratic, mostly because of how long Egypt’s history is. Where the paper has turned to dust, the stone walls of Egypt’s monuments have weathered the tests of time.
Coptic
Coptic Egyptian was a language that rose to prominence during the period of time when the Greeks ruled over Egypt. The Coptic alphabet used letters from the Greek alphabet and the Demotic alphabet (yet another one!) to write out the ancient Egyptian language in a way that the Greeks could understand.
Over time, this, combined with prolonged contact with other cultures, caused Ancient Egyptian to change, giving rise to the Coptic language. The Coptic language is most strongly associated with the Coptic Church, which came out of the spread of Christianity to Egypt.
Today, Coptic is not spoken natively by anyone but it is still used as a liturgical language in the Coptic Church.
Did you know…?
The Rosetta Stone
For much of modern history, we couldn’t read any of the hieroglyphics found on the walls of all the Egyptian monuments! It wasn’t until the year 1799 when a group of French soldiers in Napoleon’s legion made a discovery that would change things forever.
That was when a group of Napoleon’s soldiers was sifting through rubble in the Egyptian town of Rosetta. One soldier, named Pierre-François Bouchard, spotted a slab of stone covered with three distinctly different writing systems.
It became known as the Rosetta Stone.
While two of the scripts on the Rosetta Stone are written in Ancient Egyptian, the third is written in Greek. Early Egyptologists concluded that all three sets of writing must say the same things, and after years of study, the code was cracked, allowing Egyptian Hieroglyphics to be read for the first time since the fall of the Roman Empire!
The Rosetta Stone is still on display today, at the British Museum.
Is English spoken in Egypt?
While English is not an official language in Egypt, it is quite possible to get around the country by speaking only English. In large part, that is because of how popular Egypt is as a tourist destination. Walking the streets of popular cities, you can hear all sorts of foreign languages, such as Spanish, French, Russian, and English.
Economy
Currency
The official currency in Egypt is the Egyptian Pound (EGP). On my first trip, 100 EGP was roughly $6.00 USD, which was about the price of a meal at a street-side restaurant. Today, the same 100 EGP would be closer to about $3.00 USD.
Each pound is divided into 100 piastres, but it is very rare to deal with amounts less than a single pound. There are paper notes for the 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, and 200 pounds amounts, and coins for 1 pound and 50 piastres. You may also see some smaller denomination coins, but they technically haven’t been in circulation since 2008, so you won’t be expected to use them.
As far as actual buying power, it varies depending on where you are in the country.
| 200 EGP | ۲۰۰ | worth about $6 USD |
| 100 EGP | ۱۰۰ | worth about $3 USD |
| 50 EGP | ۵۰ | worth about $1.50 USD |
| 20 EGP | ۲۰ | worth about $0.75 USD |
| 10 EGP | ۱۰ | worth about $0.37 USD |
| 5 EGP | ۵ | worth about $.15 USD |
| 1EGP | ۱ | worth about $.02 USD |
| 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
| ۰ | ۱ | ۲ | ۳ | ٤ | ۵ | ٦ | ۷ | ۸ | ۹ |
How much does food cost in Egypt?
A can of coke at a convenience store can be anywhere from 5 pounds to 30 pounds, and in a restaurant, the same can can be anywhere from 25 to 50.
A falafel sandwich is usually only 5 pounds on the street or up to 100 in a restaurant.
A meal at an inexpensive sit-down restaurant is between 100-220 pounds, plus drinks.
A meal at a mid-range sit-down restaurant is between 250 pounds and 500.
A meal at a fancy restaurant in a touristy area can be 1000 pounds or more!
For more information about Egyptian foods, check out my article
Economic Sectors
Egypt has the second-largest economy in Africa, behind Nigeria. A large part of that is due to its close proximity to Europe, and its ownership of the Suez Canal, but Egypt’s fascinating history and political stability also make it into a tourism powerhouse. Despite being a desert country, Egypt also has a robust agricultural economy, thanks in large part to numerous irrigation systems.
Worldwide, Egypt is considered to have the 36th largest economy, with a GDP of $477 billion (USD) in 2022.
Agriculture
Despite primarily being a desert, agriculture is one of the largest economic sectors in Egypt. This is due, in large part, to the water provided by the Nile river, and the extensive use of irrigation techniques.
Some of Egypt’s most commonly grown crops are cotton, dates, olives, and tomatoes.
Oil and Gas
Oil and gas operations are some of the most common ways for Middle Eastern countries to bring in money, and Egypt is no exception. Together, oil and gas operations accounted for nearly a full quarter (24%) of Egypt’s GDP in 2020.
Recently, Egypt has moved to lower their imports of Natural Gas to zero, while reserving as much gas as possible for export as a way of increasing their cash flow. In the short term, this has led to near daily power outages in many parts of the country as cities attempt to cut back on gas usage. However, with the upcoming possibility of adding Egypt to Europe’s power grid via Greece, gas usage in Egypt may continue to decrease sustainably, which would free up more gas for export.
The Suez Canal
The Suez Canal is a man-made waterway connecting the Red Sea and the Mediterranean at Egypt’s narrowest point. It is one of the quickest ways to transport goods from Europe to Asia and vice-versa, making it an invaluable route for global commerce.
Egypt charges ships a toll to use the canal, and in 2020 the country earned $6.3 billion dollars (USD) from those tolls, despite setbacks from a ship becoming lodged in the canal, blocking traffic for 6 days.
Tourism
Tourism is another huge economic sector in Egypt, in large part due to the country’s storied past and years of experience with tourism.
Tourists have been visiting Egypt for thousands of years, and there’s no end in sight. Tourism revenues reached their highest point in 2019, netting the country $12.6 billion dollars (USD), but that amount fell nearly 70% in 2020, only earning Egypt $4 billion dollars that year.
As global tourism picks up again, that number is likely to increase again, but really, only time will tell.
Other Major Economic Sectors
While these are the largest economic sectors in Egypt, they are by no means the only ways that Egypt makes money.
Service industries not dealing with tourism, like banking and restaurants, are also major moneymakers, and Egypt has thriving mining and manufacturing companies as well.
A brief history of Egypt
Egypt is one of the oldest countries in the world and has a fascinating and lengthy history that can be traced back thousands of years. As such, “brief” is probably not the best word to use when trying to give even a basic overview of Egypt’s history. Even so, I will do my best to keep this section reasonable in length and point to other resources where helpful.
Here’s one to get us started.
Prehistoric Egypt
Major Achievements- Early agriculture, the first appearance of hieroglyphics, usage of copper, creation of sun-dried bricks
The prehistoric era refers to the period of time before recorded history and includes some of the earliest civilizations in Egypt. The Paleolithic (old-stone) era includes the earliest signs of humans in Egypt, around 10000 BCE. Stone tools and early petroglyphs both point to their presence in both Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt in the north.
Around 6000 BCE, the Neolithic (new-stone) era began. During this period, agriculture became more common, and multiple smaller civilizations grew up along the Nile. The most well-known of these are the Badarian and Naqada cultures, both located in Upper Egypt, though Lower Egypt had its own. These cultures interacted through trade but were not unified, otherwise.
The earliest-known hieroglyphics are found on pottery coming from the Naqada culture and date back to 3200 BCE.
Since these cultures predate the earliest pharaonic family lines in Egypt, they are known as predynastic civilizations. (Note: though I’m calling them pharaohs, the kings of Egypt were not called pharaohs until the New Kingdom)
Early Dynastic Period
Major Achievements – Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, Mastaba tombs, increased usage of written language, further development of agriculture and irrigation practices
The first unified Egyptian kingdom appeared around 3150 BCE, under the rule of the Pharoah Menes, who was also known as Narmer. When the unified crown was passed down from Menes to Hor-Aha, the first dynasty of Pharaohs was born.
The early dynastic period of Egypt contains all the pharaohs of the first and second dynasties, lasting from 3150 BCE until the beginning of the Old Kingdom in 2686 BCE, a period of 464 years. During this time, the capital of Egypt was a city called Thinis, which has yet to be located.
During this time, the nobles of Egypt began using mastaba tombs, which are essentially raised mounds over their bodies. This helped to protect their bodies from scavengers, such as jackals, and helped to show their importance.
Old Kingdom
Major Achievements – Pyramids, the Great Pyramid, increased trade with neighbors, increased mining of copper and gold, the building of great trade ships
The Old Kingdom lasted from the 3rd dynasty through to the 6th dynasty, a period of 505 years (2686-2181 BCE) During this time, the kings of Egypt solidified their power. These kings were thought to be the personification of the god, Horus, and ruled with that divine right.
The independent Egyptian states all became consolidated under the rule of the king and began paying taxes to him, and the capital of Egypt was moved to Memphis, near modern-day Cairo.
The first king of the Old Kingdom was Djoser, who also built the first pyramid as his tomb. It was designed by Djoser’s vizier, the architect Imhotep, who is credited with the design of much of the architecture of early OId Kingdom Egypt. While Djoser’s pyramid at Saqqara was the first pyramid, it was definitely not the last.
The first king of the 4th dynasty was Sneferu, who ordered three separate pyramids built during his lifetime (the Meidum Pyramid, the Bent Pyramid, and the Red Pyramid). It is thought that these pyramids were attempts to perfect the pyramid’s design, by giving them smooth sides instead of the stacked layers of earlier pyramids. He succeeded on his third try and is thought to have been buried in that pyramid, though his mummy was never found.
However, Sneferu’s son, Khufu, took things to the next level, building the Great Pyramid of Giza. His son and grandson followed suit, giving us the three pyramids of the Giza Pyramid complex that we know today.
Learn more about the last remaining Wonder of the
Ancient World in my article,
Afterward, the pyramid building fell off somewhat, though many of the Old Kingdom kings continued to be buried in pyramids.
During the 6th dynasty, the power of the Old Kingdom began to fade. The governors of the different regions of Egypt increased in power, splintering the kingdom into smaller sections. Finally, a years-long drought brought about the collapse of the 6th dynasty, and with it, the Old Kingdom.
1st Intermediate Period
The intermediate periods of Egypt are the periods of time when the country was not ruled by a single king, but instead was splintered into a number of smaller governates. The first intermediate period lasted roughly 125 years, from the fall of the Old Kingdom in 2181 BCE to the rise of the Middle Kingdom in 2055 BCE.
The first intermediate period spans the reigns of the 7th through the 12th dynasties of kings, which were each centered on one of three major locations in Egypt. The 7th and 8th dynasties were the Memphite Kings, located in lower Egypt. They were conquered by the Heracleopolitan kings of the 9th and 10th dynasties.
The Heracleopolitan kings were based out of Heracleopolis in Middle Egypt. They were warrior pharaohs and were known for their cruelty. There are few archeological records from this time, though it is known that the population of Egypt declined drastically during this period.
Around this same time, another line of kings was established in Upper Egypt centered on Thebes. These Theban kings make up the 11th dynasty of Egypt, and would eventually defeat the Heracleopolitian kings to reunify Egypt and bring them into the Middle Kingdom.
Middle Kingdom
Major Achievements – Standing armies, an expansion of territory, irrigation projects in the Faiyum Oasis, the first female king of Egypt
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt was the second of Egypt’s three “golden ages” lasting from 2040 BCE to around 1650 BCE. These almost 400 years include the end of the reign of the Theban kings of the 11th dynasty and the entirety of the 12th dynasty, which ruled from Itjtawy, in Lower Egypt.
After years of warfare, the reunification of Egypt gave rise to a mixed bag of military campaigns and peace treaties. Some kings focused on expanding their territory through warfare, while others focused on domestic issues, like expanding agriculture. Senusret II focused much of his 15-year reign on the irrigation of the Faiyum Oasis to provide food for Egypt, an achievement that is still bearing fruit today!
The most well-known king of this era was his son, Senusret III, who was a warrior king. He conquered much of Nubia, in the south and established a firm border with Southern Nubia, which he guarded fiercely.
The final king of the 12th dynasty was Sobekneferu, who was also the first female king of Egypt. When she died without heirs, Egypt fell into a period of chaos.
The 13th dynasty was composed of a series of kings who likely weren’t related to each other. Collectively known as ephemeral kings, none of them reigned for long, though they managed to hold on to much of the territory gained during the early Middle Kingdom.
Eventually, that power eroded, and parts of the Nile Delta began ruling themselves. These were the kings of the 14th dynasty, ruling out of the city of Avaris. This division in the ruling power of Egypt marks the end of the Middle Kingdom.
2nd Intermediate Period
The second intermediate period lasted around 100 years, from 1650 to 1550 BCE.
During this period, the 15th dynasty, known as the Hyskos kings, ruled from the Nile Delta. Unlike earlier Egyptian kings, the Hyskos kings were of Asiatic descent, originally coming from farther east than Egypt.
These Hyskos kings warred with the southern kings of the 16th dynasty, eventually conquering Thebes itself. Later in the 16th dynasty, peace was reached between the two groups, though Egypt remained split.
During this same time another dynasty also had its own kings, ruling out of Abydos, but they are relatively unknown.
The 17th dynasty was the final dynasty of the 2nd intermediate period. This dynasty led the war of liberation that forced the Hyskos kings out of Egypt, restored many of the monuments in Upper Egypt, and led up to the time of the New Kingdom.
New Kingdom
Major Achievements – Establishment of major trade routes outside of Egypt, extensive temple and monument construction and restoration, major military victories, establishment of the Valley of the Kings and Valley of the Queens
The New Kingdom spanned the 18th through 20th dynasties, a period of nearly 500 years.
The 18th dynasty included some of the best-known kings of Egypt, including Thutmose III, Hatshepsut, Akhenaten, and Tutankhamen. This dynasty was a time of ever-increasing prosperity. Trade flourished, and there were many, many building projects.
It was during this period that kings began to be buried in the Valley of the Kings outside of Thebes, making Thebes into a sort of religious capital. Hatshepsut was one of the most powerful kings of this era, and she built extensively in both Luxor and Karnak temples, as well as building an impressive mortuary temple of her own.
Her son, Thutmose III was considered a military genius, and conducted many military campaigns, consolidating Egypt’s power. He was considered the “Napoleon of Egypt” and is said to have captured over 350 cities during his reign.
During the reign of Amenhotep IV, there was a temporary shift towards monotheism. He renamed himself Akhenaten, and worshipped Aten, the sun god, as the only god, in part due to the influence of his wife, Nefertiti. After his death, there was a large backlash against the cult of Aten, and a shift back to traditional Egyptian religion, led in part by Akhenaten’s son, King Tut.
Only 2 kings reigned in the 18th dynasty after King Tut, Ay, and Horemheb. Ay claimed the title of Pharoah through marrying Tutankhamen’s mother and half-sister, but his reign was short. Horemheb, a general during Tut’s reign succeeded him, and then also died without an heir. In that absence, his vizier ascended the throne, took the name Ramses I, and established the 19th dynasty.
The first three kings of the 19th dynasty were some of the most famous warrior kings in Egyptian history, and greatly expanded Egypt’s territories. Campaigns against the Hittites and the Nubians were largely successful, and during Ramses II’s reign, peace was reached.
Ramses II, known as Ramses the Great, reigned for 66 years, and died in his 90s. During those years he built extensively, creating monuments such as Abu Simbel in Nubia, and the Ramesseum in Thebes. He also established a new capital in the Nile River Delta, called Pi-Ramses.
Ramses’ successors continued to have great success militarily, but the 19th dynasty still declined. The final Pharoah of the dynasty, Twosret, only reigned a short time and left the kingdom in a short period of anarchy before Setnakthe ascended the throne, establishing the 20th dynasty.
The 20th dynasty continued to lean heavily on its military, and the costs of war began to drain the country’s wealth. By the end of the 20th dynasty, drought, famine, and political crisis brought the Ramses XI kingdom to its knees.
3rd Intermediate Period
The third intermediate period began with the death of Ramses XI, which ushered in the 21st dynasty. During this period, Egypt began a steady decline. Political infighting weakened Egypt at home, while abroad, its allies began associating themselves with the rising Assyrian Empire.
By 700 BCE, it became apparent that there would be conflict between the two empires, but Assyria’s greater supply of trees, and therefore charcoal, gave it a great advantage. Charcoal was necessary for the smelting of iron, which was much stronger than the bronze used in Egypt.
In 664 BCE, the Assyrians sacked both Thebes and Memphis. Farther south, in Upper Egypt, the 26th dynasty continued to reign, while Assyria put its own kings in place in Lower Egypt. Fighting between the two halves of Egypt continued, with Assyria being pushed out altogether for a short time before returning in force. Eventually, the Pharoah Psamtik brought Egypt back out from under Assyria, and into a period of peace lasting until 525 BCE.
At this point, the Persian Empire defeated both Assyria and Egypt, ending the third intermediate period.
Late Period
Major achievements: The founding of Alexandria (including the lighthouse, and the library), the translation of the Septuagint (a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible), numerous temples across Egypt, the final Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt
The Late Period of Egypt lasted from the end of the 26th dynasty until the 31st dynasty. During much of this time, Egypt was a satrapy of the Persian empire, and Persian rulers such as Xerxes I and Darius the Great took on the mantle of Pharoah, despite ruling from far off Persia. There was a rebellion during the 28th-30th dynasties, and Egypt ruled itself from 404 BCE until it was reconquered by Persia in 343 BCE.
The 31st dynasty lasted until Alexander the Great defeated the Persian Empire.
Ptolemaic Egypt
Under Greek rule, the Ptolemies became the Pharaohs of Egypt. The first Ptolemaic Pharoah was Ptolemy I, who had been a friend to Alexander the Great. Although he was Greek by heritage, his descendants participated fully in Egyptian culture, living in Egypt, and building their own monuments throughout the country.
The last Ptolemaic Pharoah was Cleopatra VII. Under her rule, Egypt became part of a Roman civil war, ending in the suicides of both Mark Antony and Cleopatra herself.
With her death, Egypt became a Roman province, and the days of the Pharaohs came to an end.
Roman Egypt
Under Roman rule, Egypt became an economic center for the Roman Empire, providing agricultural and manufactured goods. Alexandria grew in importance, both as a shipping hub and as an educational center.
The Library of Alexandria became one of the greatest repositories of knowledge in the world during this time, and the Lighthouse of Alexandria was named as one of the Wonders of the World.
Coptic Egypt
Egypt’s role as an important transportation and shipping hub made it accessible to early Christian Evangelists, including (traditionally) St. Mark. The Christian presence in Alexandria flourished during the hundreds of years under Roman rule, eventually becoming the dominant religion in Egypt.
In 451 ADE, the Coptic Church was formed, marking its division from the Roman Catholic Church. It still remains as a major church in Egypt, even today.
Muslim Egypt
In 642 ADE, Egypt was conquered by the Arab Islamic Empire, replacing the Byzantine Empire as the rulers of Egypt, and setting off a number of conflicts between the Egyptian Christians and Muslims.
Cairo became an important center for the Muslim Caliphates that ruled Egypt, and by the 14th-century ADE, Islam overtook Christianity as the majority religion in Egypt. In 1517, Egypt was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, which, combined with the plague, and multiple famines, drove Egypt into a decline.
In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt but was eventually defeated and expelled in 1801. This led to what is called the Mohammed Ali dynasty,
Mohammed Ali claimed the position of Viceroy of Egypt, and after a series of military exploits, made the title hereditary, passing it down to his son. This period was a time of modernization for Egypt, and many industries were built up under his rule.
Modern Egypt
In 1882, the British defeated the Egyptian army, taking control of the country. They ruled Egypt from afar until 1952 when the Egyptian revolution expelled the British, and Egypt became a republic.
Since then, Egypt has continued to develop as a modern country and remains a popular destination for tourists from around the world.
Culture
Most lessons on Egypt tend to focus on its history. That’s understandable since it has so much fascinating history to explore, but it’s important to remember that Egypt is a living country today, with its own modern culture.
Government
Egypt’s government is a Democratic Republic, with an elected President functioning as the Head of State. Presidents serve for a term of 4 years, and each president is limited to a maximum of two terms, according to the country’s constitution.
The most recent constitution was adopted in January of 2014, replacing the Egyptian Constitution of 2012.
However, the current president, Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, has been president since June of 2014, and there will not be an election in 2022. Instead, his second term has been extended to a 6-year term and it has been stated that he will be allowed to run for a third term. (Read more here)
Each of Egypt’s 27 Governates (like states) is led by a governor, who is chosen by the president.
Religion
The majority religion in Egypt is Islam, and 90% of all Egyptians are Sunni Muslims. As an Islamic country, there are frequent calls to prayer broadcast from the local mosques, and it is not uncommon to see Egyptians praying.
Friday is considered the day of prayer, and many stores will remain closed on Fridays until after the weekly service.
Of the remaining 10% of the population, 9% belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church, which is one of the oldest branches of Christianity. The last 1% includes other denominations of Christianity and other religions.
Food
Most food in Egypt shows influences from other Middle Eastern, Mediterranean, and North African countries. Street food is very common, and people will often get their meals to go, in the form of a sandwich. As such, shawarma is a super popular dish, and you can find it almost anywhere in Egypt.
Breakfasts usually consist of flatbread, cheeses, ful (seasoned and mashed fava beans), and falafel (seasoned and fried fava beans).
DIfferent grilled meats are also popular, and lamb kofta, shish tawook, and shish kebab are all readily available. However, since Egypt is primarily Islamic, pork is not available in any form.
For a better picture of what food in Egypt is like, read
Clothing
Modern Egyptians wear a blending of traditional clothing and more western-style clothing. It is not uncommon to see men wearing blue jeans and a t-shirt in the city, but in smaller towns and in the countryside, the traditional galabiya is still much more popular.
The galabiya is essentially a long robe that covers the whole body from shoulders to ankles. Lighter materials are used in the summer, when the days are hot, while heavier materials help keep people warm in the winter.
I spent most of my time in Egypt in Luxor, and more than half of the men I saw were wearing a galabiya.
On top of the galabiya, most men will also wear scarves, both as a functional way to stay warm and also for fashion.
Women have their own version of the traditional robe, called the gallebaya. Additionally, women will almost always have their hair covered by some form of headdress. This is in large part due to Islam’s influence in the area.
For a more complete picture of traditional Egyptian clothing, I found this article to be very helpful.
Field Trips
For those families interested in seeing it for themselves, Egypt is a country filled to bursting with amazing field trip opportunities! Predictably, many of the best trips in Egypt have to do with its unique heritage and ancient architecture, but for those who are willing to travel off the beaten path, there are some nature-focused gems as well!
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UNESCO World Heritage Sites
The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) gives its World Heritage Site label to locations around the world that have immense cultural or natural significance. As such, these locations are often some of my favorites to visit!
Egypt has 7 world heritage sites, 6 cultural sites, and 1 natural site. It’s worth noting, however, that some of those sites cover huge amounts of space, so it’s almost impossible to see everything in just a single trip.
Cultural World Heritage Sites
The cultural world heritage sites are locations around the world that hold significant cultural meaning for people around the world. Egypt has 6.
Memphis and its Necropolis (The Great Pyramid and its surroundings)
The Great Pyramid of Giza is the last remaining Wonder of the ancient world and the most recognizable monument in all of Egypt. However, the UNESCO site also includes the other pyramids in the area, the sphinx, and the entirety of the necropolis.
For more details, check out my article, A Good Guide to the Great Pyramid.
Ancient Thebes and its Necropolis (Luxor and its surroundings)
The town of Luxor is where were based for most of our time in Egypt, and it is absolutely filled to the brim with amazing archaeological sites. From the Valley of the Kings, where numerous pharaohs were buried, to the largest temple in Egypt (Karnak), Luxor has plenty to do and see.
Check out some of my personal favorite things to do in the area in 17 amazing things to do in Luxor, Egypt.
The Nubian Monuments (From Aswan to Abu Simbel)
The Nubian Monuments are a series of archaeological sites located south of Aswan, Egypt. The northernmost ones can be visited directly from Aswan simply by taking a taxi, but Abu Simbel in the south requires a 3-hour car trip (or a quick flight) to reach.
One of the most amazing parts about these monuments is that many of them were moved from their original location to where they sit now so that they wouldn’t be lost to the waters of Lake Nasser when the Aswan Dam was built. It was a huge undertaking, but worth it, since Abu Simbel remains one of the most popular destinations in Egypt.
If you’re planning on going to Aswan (and you should be!), be sure to check out my article, Best places to visit as a family in Aswan, Egypt.
Historic Cairo (Ancient Islam in Cairo)
Islam has been a major part of Egyptian culture for hundreds of years, and its impact can be seen all over the country. However, there are some places where it is more apparent than others.
Historic Cairo is a collection of old Islamic neighborhoods and structures located in the heart of Cairo. Beautiful mosques, crowded markets, and the Citadel of Salah Al-Din are just a few of the amazing sites located in Historic Cairo.
Saint Catherine Area (The Sinai Peninsula)
The Orthodox Monastery of St. Catherine is the oldest Christian monastery still used for its initial purpose and sits at the base of Mt. Horeb, the location where Moses was said to have received the 10 Commandments.
It is a location that is considered to be holy to Jews, Christians, and Muslims, while the monastery itself is a great example of Byzantine architecture of the 6th century.
This location is fairly remote, though, making it one of the more difficult UNESCO sites to visit in Egypt.
Abu Mena (Coptic Ruins outside Alexandria)
The Abu Mena Heritage site was built over the tomb of an early Christian martyr, Menas of Alexandria, who died in the year 296. Today, much of the site is in ruins, with little more than the foundations of some buildings remaining.
It’s not an easy place to get to, and since it is not super well-preserved, this is one UNESCO site that I wouldn’t recommend visiting.
Natural UNESCO Sites
Wadi Al-Hitan (Whale Valley)
Located with Wadi El Rayan National Park, Wadi-AL Hitan, or the valley of the whales is the only Natural UNESCO site in Egypt.
It is a paleontological site where the fossilized skeletons of some early whale ancestors have been found. While this would make it interesting enough, the reason it became a UNESCO site is that these whales were early enough to still have legs, establishing that whales descended from land animals, and not the other way around.
It is a beautiful place where you can see massive whale skeletons, in situ.
Learn more about visiting in my article, Finding Egypt’s Desert Whales in Whale Valley (Wadi al-Hitan).
Other National Parks
There are so many amazing places to visit in Egypt! If you’re still looking for places to check out, these national parks include some of the best natural experiences in the country.
Ras Muhammad National Park (Red Sea)
Ras Muhammad is located on the southernmost tip of the Sinai Peninsula and has some of the most amazing snorkeling and diving in the country. The coral reefs in this area are some of the most biologically diverse locations in Egypt, and a stark contrast to much of the desert that dominates the country.
Wadi El Gemal National Park (Valley of the Camels)
Wadi El Gemal is home to some of the only wild camels in Egypt!
Wadi el-Gemal and the Marsa Alam Coast
The park is located on the coast of the Red Sea, just south of Marsa Alam, and includes nearly 7,500 km2 of protected land and marine areas. Tours through the valley require an exciting 4×4 jeep ride but include some truly exquisite scenery, Ptolemaic-era ruins from Cleopatra’s emerald mines, and the possibility of seeing wild camels.
Wadi-el Gemal’s marine reserves likewise feature some amazing sights, including large pods of spinner dolphins, endangered dugongs, some of the most exquisite coral reefs I’ve ever seen.
Wadi El Rayan and the Quaron Protectorate
Wadi El Rayan was mentioned earlier as the home of the Valley of the Whales, but there’s actually a ton of other things to do there as well! Located just outside of Fayoum, Wadi el Rayan National Park has a couple of beautiful lakes, huge sand dunes where you can sandboard, and Egypt’s only waterfall.
The nearby Quaron Protectorate hosts an immense petrified forest, more sandboarding, and some amazing bird-watching areas, including a number of flamingoes!
If that wasn’t enough, the area also hosts a number of ruins to check out and loads of great local culture.
The Black Desert Natural Reserve
The Black Desert Reserve is one of two spectacular deserts located in the dry regions west of the Nile. The black color of this desert is caused by the erosion of nearby volcanic stone deposits.
The dark-colored stone covering the ground is starkly different from the sands that make up most of Egypt’s desert region, making it a unique destination to check out.
Most tours of the area combine together a trip to the Black desert with the nearby White Desert to the south.
White Desert National Park
Egypt’s White Desert owes its unusual coloration to the massive chalk deposits scattered across its surface. Whereas the Black Desert consists mostly of dark-colored mounds, the White Desert is filled with fascinating natural formations, many of which resemble giant stone mushrooms.
This area is a popular destination for camping in the desert, despite it technically being against the rules. If the idea of camping in a windswept desert filled with wind-carved pillars of chalk appeals to you, I highly recommend checking out some of the local safari outfitters.
Mount Elba
Mount Elba is located in what is known as a mist oasis. Essentially, the whole region has a remarkably high humidity when compared with the rest of Egypt, allowing a unique ecosystem to thrive. The area is the only wooded area in all of Egypt and hosts a wide variety of amazing plants and animals, including several species that are endangered.
However, getting there can be a bit tricky. The region is a contested region, claimed by both Sudan and Egypt. Egypt has been in control of the area for years, though, so there’s little risk to visitors. It does, however, add to the difficulty in gaining permission to visit.
Tours to the region typically leave from Marsa Alam, along the Red Sea.
Siwa Oasis Protectorate
The Siwa Oasis Protectorate is one of the westernmost places you can visit in Egypt. Culturally, the region is quite different from other areas in Egypt and shares more with the Berber culture of neighboring Libya than with the rest of Egypt.
The presence of the oasis gives the area easy access to water, and there are plenty of palms and olive trees around. But the real reason to visit is for the springs.
Both fresh and saltwater springs abound, and taking a swim in one of Siwa’s salt lakes is a time-honored way to enjoy your visit.
Other Amazing Archaeological Sites
With such a long history, it should go without saying that Egypt has more than its fair share of archaeological sites! As such, it’s not really possible to list out everything of interest that you can see during your time in Egypt.
If you’ve already seen the big sites and are still itching for more, checking out some of these lesser-known (but still amazing!) sites can be a great addition to your travels.
Dendera Temple Complex
This one is impressive enough that it made my list of Top 17 Things to Do in Luxor, despite not actually being in Luxor!
Dendera Temple Complex is an assortment of temples located about an hour north of Luxor. It is best known for the beautifully preserved Temple of Hathor, where the Dendera Horoscope was discovered, and it boasts engravings and statues of Ptolemaic Pharaohs, including a relief carving of Cleopatra herself!
Abydos
Abydos is another site located not far from Luxor, and it often gets lumped together into a single tour with the Dendera Temple Complex. However, if you’re traveling with kids, I’d personally suggest doing the two separately, as a single tour featuring both makes for a rather long day.
Like the city of Thebes, Abydos is another important ancient burial site and features several amazing temples in its necropolis. The highlight here is the Temple of Seti I, which features several unique design choices.
Kom Ombo and Edfu
Located along the Nile between Luxor and Aswan, these two temples are common stops for many Nile cruise ships.
Edfu Temple is dedicated to the hawk god, Horus, and is the place where he avenged the murder of his father by killing Seth, according to legend. Kom Ombo is dedicated to both Horus and Sobek, the crocodile-headed god of fertility.
As a bonus, you can also visit the nearby Crocodile Museum, where there are more than 20 crocodile mummies, eggs, and statues!
The Red Pyramid
While it is the oldest of the three pyramids in Giza, the Great Pyramid is not, in fact, the first true pyramid in Egypt. Constructed by the Pharoah Sneferu, the Red Pyramid is considered to be the first successfully built true pyramid in Egypt. Previous to its construction, Sneferu made two other pyramids, but one collapsed under its own weight, while the other changes its angle partway up, giving it a bent appearance.
Of course, even these “true pyramids” aren’t really the first ones. For that, you need to step even further back in time, with a visit to Saqqara.
Saqqara
Saqqara is one of the earliest necropolises of the Old Kingdom and the home of Egypt’s oldest-known pyramid. Unlike the Great Pyramid, Djoser’s Pyramid is not a “true-pyramid,” and instead takes on a multi-tiered shape, called a step pyramid.
Djoser’s Pyramid, while impressive, isn’t the only thing to see at Saqqara. The necropolis is also home to a number of other tombs from around the same time, as well as a museum dedicated to Imhotep, the architect who first came up with the idea to build pyramidal tombs and many other architectural wonders from the Old Kingdom.
Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa
Discovered by accident when a donkey fell into a hole, these tombs in Alexandria are a fascinating look at the blending of Greek and Egyptian cultures during the Ptolemaic period. Carvings representing gods from both cultures appear in the tombs from a single family, while other areas of the catacomb show that the caves were later used as a meeting place for Christians.
This was probably my favorite stop in Alexandria.
Thonis-Heracleion
Thonis-Heracleion is an archaeological site unlike any other in Egypt. In large part, that’s because it’s completely submerged in the waters of the Mediterranean Sea! Thonis-Heracleion is a sunken city that can only be explored with SCUBA equipment, which unfortunately means that I haven’t had the pleasure of seeing it for myself. (Someday, though)
Dive tours in Thonis-Heracleion itself are strictly monitored, so you will need to set up with a reputable dive shop in the area ahead of time. Or, there are other sunken wonders in the waters surrounding Alexandria as well, including Cleopatra’s palace!
Valley of the Paintings
People have inhabited Egypt for an extremely long time, and the Valley of the Paintings is one of the oldest archaeological sites in the country. Within the valley, there are several caves with paintings dating back to the Neolithic era!
While the existence of these caves in the Western Desert is incredible, I have not been able to find any way to actually visit these amazing cave paintings.
Looking for more?
Check out these articles on Egypt!
